South India 'on a Shoestring'

Whatever time of year you visit, it is likely that some festival or other is taking place during your stay. There is often something going on in the temples every full moon. Some of the more noteworthy festivals are:
February: Shivaratri is the festival in honour of Shiva. On ‘phalgun’, the night of the full moon, festivals are held in every Shiva temple.
February/March: Holi is a popular festival, particularly amongst the lower castes. This festival is held to mark the coming of Spring. It is a time when all accepted norms are thrown out of the window and everything is permissible, comparable to western festivals such as Mardi Gras. During Holi, people drench each other with water and powder paint, so make sure you are wearing old clothes at the time, as tourists are a popular target and the paint doesn’t come out easily!
October/November: Diwali or Tihar is celebrated. This is the Festival of Light and is marked by the illumination of thousands of lights, fireworks, baking cakes and other sweets and making patterns in sand outside one’s house. This is to accompany the return of the god Rama from his banishment in the jungle. The festival of the goddess Lakshimi is held at the same time.
October/November: Pushkar Camel Fair. At full moon during the Hindu month Kartika Purnima and Pushkar transforms from a sleepy place into a madhouse. Tens of thousands of camels and horses and as many as a quarter of a million people descend on the area. This is the largest camel market in India, probably the world. The occasion is marked by camel races, music and dancing. It is a spectacular occasion, and people stay in large, colourful campsites where food is made readily available.

The cultural differences between Europeans and Indians are so vast that one could write a book about them. Below is an overview of some points to take into account when mixing with the locals.

"Yes and no": Maybe the most confusing cultural difference is the usage of yes and no. To begin with, ‘yes’ is not indicated by nodding but by quickly moving the chin to and fro, causing the head to ‘wobble’ (you should try it!). Secondly, whether spoken or ‘wobbled’, ‘yes’ has a much broader meaning. Besides ‘yes’, it can indicate ‘eh’, or ‘understood’, or even something like ‘that’s probably right’, or ‘I have heard you, but I’m not interested in what you are saying’. ‘Yes’ when uttered by an Indian hence doesn’t give you a clue as to what they mean. ‘No’ is a word Indians do not like to say too often, for example when asked if the bus to Colombo stops here. If offered a piece of liquorice, nine out of ten Indians will find the taste foul but the chances of them saying ‘no’ when asked if they like it are very slim.

Courtesy rules: Indians traditionally greet with a namasté, hand palms pressed together and held upright in front of the face. The higher you hold your hands, the more respect you express. In addition, with members of the same sex, you can often shake hands. Address everyone with ‘sir’ or ‘madam’. Do not raise your voice, even if something does not go the way you like. It is better to ask for someone higher in rank, as delegation of decisions is not a strong point in Indian organisations. Presents are not unpacked immediately, but put aside. Showing eagerness is seen as a bad habit.

Gifts: Do not be surprised or offended if you are not immediately thanked upon presenting a gift. The gift will usually be put to one side, unopened. This is not a sign of ingratitude. In India showing eagerness towards gifts is seen as a sign of greed, and not at all appreciated.

Dress: Adult men wearing shorts are seen as ridiculous by Indians, and women wearing shorts as outrageous. The local population likes to dress formally for important events. Should you be invited to a wedding, ask about any dress code. Swimming naked or topless is prohibited. In a bikini, you will look foolish. Indian women bathe mostly in their sari. In practice, wearing a bikini results in persistent stares from Indian men. A bathing suit will make sunbathing a far more relaxed experience.

Left and right: The right hand is used to eat, while the left hand is reserved for cleaning one’s behind. Should you be eating a meal with Indians using your hands, remember to only use your right hand. Changing hands is considered foul by Indians. Do not touch anyone with your left hand.

Appointments: We are from a hectic culture in which time equals money and appointments tend to be met punctually, or the day’s schedule will be messed up. Indians do not have this problem. Not that they will always be late: it is possible that they didn’t have anything else to do and that they decide to arrive an hour early.

Privacy: Staring is not impolite and most Indians do not have the sense of space as we know it. They will come nearer to you than Europeans, like to join you when reading your book and they will study it meticulously as soon as you put it down. They may enter the room without knocking and they may stay around when they are done. It is up to you to indicate your boundaries.

Men and women: In India, men and women treat each other differently than westerners. You will hardly ever see a man and a woman walking with their arms around each other. Physical contact in public between men and women is being limited as much as possible. To show your affection in public is likewise viewed as highly inappropriate. In stations and some cinemas, there are even separate cash tills for women and in trains there are separate compartments. However, the rules for the contacts between the sexes are rather liberal. As a man it is better not to sit next to a woman and not to talk to her. This rule applies in particular to women in their fertile age. Female tourists are free to make contact with Indian women. For western women, it is particularly important to take into account behavioural codes vis-à-vis Indian men. As a western woman, it is better not to look Indian men in the eye. Many men will think you are after something.

Visiting holy places: Holy places must be entered barefoot, with the exception of churches. Hindu temples you must enter without head dress. In some temples, and always in the garbha griha, the holiest place of a temple, you are not welcome. To visit a mosque, wear clothes that cover you up. Sometimes you are asked to cover your head. During a service, men are separated from the women. When walking around a Buddhist stupa, walk to the left, so clockwise. It is not appreciated when tourists make pictures in front of a Buddha statue. In Jain monuments it is not permitted to take leather objects inside (shoes, bags, belts etc). Sikh temples should be entered covered up and with something to cover your head.

Begging: Begging is partly a socially accepted activity. Through giving alms, Hindus can improve their karma and well-to-do Muslims according to the Koran are required to give 4% of their income to the less well off. However, most inhabitants of India will loudly show that they disapprove of the same practice. Beggars are called ‘bone-idle’; ‘those people that want to get their daily handful of rice without working for it’. Shoestring has the rule never to give money to children, if anything some fruit or something else to eat. (Preferably not sweets, there are hardly any dentists in these parts.) It is accepted to give to elderly people or invalids. The truth behind each beggar can be very different. One or two indeed have to beg for their food, but most are forced to pay for their place in a house with this activity. Besides, the number of drug and alcohol addicts is on the increase. It is wisest to give to a well-reputed charity. It is legitimate for beggars to sit near the exit door of temples and mosques and wait for baksheesh (alms). Both Hindus and Muslims have a system similar to our way of giving indulgences.

Prices and haggling: Find out the real price of something. Paying too much leads to inflation and paying too little harms the seller. In practice, the price of an item will always be set higher than what you are expected to pay for it. It is better to see it as a game, which can be fun to play. In the eyes of the local population, westerners are always on holiday and earn loads of money. This can give them the feeling of being underdeveloped and poor. Try to give them a more balanced picture by describing daily life in the west. A cup of tea in a simple Indian street stall costs some 5 rupees, while we would easily pay 100 rupees at home.

In general
Be aware at all times that you are a guest in a country with different social customs than you are used to. Particularly during the festivals, it is important to adapt to the local standards, however strange you may find them.

The eating habits in India differ greatly from Europe and adjusting can prove tricky. People usually sit on the floor and eat with their right hand from a metal plate. Hands and face are washed before the meal. Eating breakfast or drinking tea or coffee before brushing your teeth is seen as dirty. Water is drunk during meals and should you order a coffee without further instructions, it will be brought to you after the meal. Talking comes before the meal; people rarely talk during it. If you are invited out to eat, chat amiably before the meal but leave after it. Women and children eat separately and only after the men have finished. Guests are often the only ones to eat, while the host concentrates on your service. This is a sign of politeness, but can make Europeans feel uncomfortable. Indians eat three warm meals per day.
Many Indians are vegetarians for religious or moral reasons. Even eggs are often avoided. For a long time the Indian diet was restricted to fish. Vegetarians are well catered for. Meat was not part of the Indian diet until the Moghuls and Europeans stepped in. The amount of meat used in Indian curry is small compared to European tastes. Of the meat dishes, we recommend tandoori and tikka.

Breakfast: Cornflakes, toast, jam, butter and eggs are the standard fare in hotels and restaurants. Indians eat idlis (rice cakes), dosas (pancakes), puri badji (fried bread with veg) or different types of bread with curd.

Lunch and dinner: In India, warm meals are eaten in the afternoon and evening. There are regional differences, but in the large cities you can find places specialised in a wide range of foods although the variety is difficult for westerners to notice at first. Indian meals consist of rice and different breads, with curries and dal. Curry is the name given to all vegetable, fish and meat dishes which are prepared using the most complex spice combinations in the world (up to 25 per meal). Dal is the name of dishes made from lentils and is the most important protein source . Other than Indian cuisine, western and Chinese food is also available in the large cities, although some of the attempts to replicate western food have rather poor results. One reason why the food often disagrees with tourists is that they often take too much curry in relation to the bread and rice. Curries are often spicy and fatty and should be eaten in relatively small amounts, as flavouring to the rice or bread.

Snacks: Apart from the meals there are the snacks. Poor Indians often nibble puffed rice, dried chickpeas or peanuts. Belpuri is a snack favoured by people in and around Bombay. It is made of lentils, crunchy vermicelli, tomato, onion and fresh coriander. For a few rupees you can buy a small plate. Besides there are various fried snacks which are invariably vegetarian. Only in the more expensive restaurants such snacks are prepared with a meat filling. Some of the names of these snacks are pakoras, fried balls kept together by potato starch, samosas, small pastries with a potato and vegetable filling, and cutlets, snacks coated with breadcrumbs, filled with a varying vegetarian mixture and fried.

Tap water: Tap water is not suitable for drinking. You will have to buy mineral water or use the drinking water produced in middle-class and expensive hotels and restaurants. This water is boiled or filtered with a bacteria filter. Mineral water is relatively expensive. For this reason, it sometimes happens that bottles are filled up with unreliable water. Always take care that bottles are properly sealed. Only in good restaurants are ice cubes made of clean water.

Other drinks: At a temperature of 30ºC or over, our moisture requirement shoots up. If we exercise as well, the requirement can mount to over 5 litres a day. Part of this is contained in food; the rest of the intake must be drunk. When sweating, you also get rid of salts that have to be refilled. In case of heat, make it your habit to eat soup as a starter. Chai or tea is India’s national drink. It is always served with a lot of milk and sugar. If you want it differently, visit a good hotel. The same applies to coffee. Soft drinks are now available throughout India. The local brands are sweeter than what we are used to. A fresh choice is the drink called fresh-lime soda: soda water with fresh lemon juice. You can order it sweet, salt or without any further addition. The same applies for another tasty drink, lassi, comparable to buttermilk. Lassi can be a source of harmful bacteria, so it is better to order it only in good restaurants. Ice-tea and ice coffee are also delicious drinks, the latter may be served with a scoop of vanilla ice cream. Also, there are fruit juices such as orange juice, mango juice, grape juice, papaya juice and pineapple juice. Mango juice and pineapple juice are sometimes hard on the stomach and it is best not to drink more than a little bit of them. You can also buy a coconut and have it opened for you to drink the milk.

Alcohol: Beer is available almost everywhere, although many smaller hotels are not officially licensed. In this case it will only be available on room service. It is mostly sold in small bottles, although increasing numbers of large hotels have beer on tap. The best brands are Kingfisher, Black Label and Pelican. Beer is relatively expensive here, varying from 35 rupees in a shop to 100 rupees in the large hotels. Spirits are available in bars and wine shops, and are usually cheap imitations of whisky, gin and rum. Wine lovers would be better off bringing a couple of bottles from home, as it is rare in India.

Restaurants and other eating places: In every Indian village you can find a small eating place with nice food. The ones frequented by Indians are very cheap. Sometimes you can eat there for as little as 35 pence. They will not appeal to everybody, as hygiene is not a strong priority. In practice, however, conditions are usually not too bad if many people are eating there. However, many westerners’ appetite is dampened by the décor in these places. In tourist hotels, Indian food may be served which is more adapted to foreign palates. The best food is prepared in the kitchens of local families. If you are lucky enough to be invited for a meal with locals, be sure to grasp this opportunity.

Fruit: One of the greatest attractions of India is the nearly infinite offer of the most exotic fruits. They come in a variety of colours, shapes and sizes, but they outdo each other in taste. To explore this region is to surrender wholly to the strangely looking fruit piled up along the road or sold by women who make a living out of fruit selling on the beach or in the street. Some of the most delectable fruits are mango, rambutan, papaya, pineapple, royal coconut, sour sob, jackfruit, mangosteen, durian and the many types of banana.

Rajasthan: An exotic state, resembling something out of a storybook. The landscape is characterised by endless desert, interspersed with caravans, camels, fortress cities and large luxury palaces where the Rajput princes lived. Many of these palaces are architectural masterpieces, although they are expensive to maintain and for this reason many have been turned into museums to raise extra revenue. Rajastan has an area of 132,150 square miles (one and a half times the size of Great Britain) and is the second-largest federal state in India after Madhya Pradesh. Two-thirds of the area of the state is taken up by the Thar Desert, which extends into Pakistan and is bordered on its east side by the Aravalli mountain range. This is the oldest mountain range in India and it splits Rajasthan diagonally from northeast to southwest. To the east of the Aravalli, the terrain is greener and more fertile, whereas the Thar Desert is barren and dry.

Tamil Nadu: The Tamils view their land as holy, chosen by the gods. There are temples everywhere and the presence of Shiva, Vishnu, Murugan, Ganesha and numerous other goddesses bless the land. Here and there, in the course of history these temples have developed into enormous complexes. ‘Where there isn’t a temple, one should not live’, according to a well-known Tamil saying. The Tamil language flows as ‘sweet honey’, in the opinion of the population it is about one of the oldest of the Dravidian languages. Old poets composed songs which resound still daily within the walls of these houses of the gods.
Tamil Nadu is the most ‘anti-Aryan’ and ‘anti-Northern-India’ of the southerly states. Several times in the past, this has led to regionalism, sometimes even in militant form. Nowhere in India is the resistance against Hindi as a national language as fierce as in Tamil Nadu.
Together with Orissa, Tamil Nadu is one of the most Hindu regions in India. Islam has reached the area quite late and hence Hinduism was able to develop relatively undisturbed. Most Hindus in Tamil Nadu profess a type of Hinduism which may be called bhakti, loving dedication to a deity or participation in a deity. Such dedication sometimes originates in fear but it is mostly characterized by affection and emotion. The deity grants his blessings as a way of supporting his earthly beings. Tamil Nadu has given the world some highly special art forms. In the first place this includes the Bharata Natyam dancing tradition. This tradition now has come out of the temples and courts of principals and now reaches a large audience even extending outside India’s borders. A second example is the South-Indian art of bronze casting, which reached its high point in the dynamic posture of the dancing Shiva, a figure which made a deep impression on the French sculptor Rodin.
 

Kerala: This small state lies on the west coast of the Nilgiri, South India’s coastal mountain range. The combination of two wet monsoons and the rain clouds colliding with the mountains causes Kerala to be the greenest part of South India. The high precipitation and fertility of the soil enables intensive agriculture. Three rice harvests annually is not uncommon, with coconut, in a wide diversity of applications, makes up a quarter of the population’s diet. The high agricultural output could well explain the high population density of the state. In the coastal areas, large cities have been built with small bungalows in large gardens, alternating with rice fields and coconut plantations. Each plot is cultivated. An oddity are the ‘backwaters’, a system of channels, rivers and islands right behind the coast, where the people live right next to and on the water. The hills and mountains offer a different perspective. Here some dense jungle alternates with rubber and spice plantations and, higher in the mountains, tea and coffee plantations. Large areas have been deforested through logging. The government works to counter the destructive erosion by encouraging eucalyptus and agave plantations.
Kerala is the land of opposites. It is a well-developed area and the state can be proud of the fact that in Kerala illiteracy is the lowest in the country. Birth control is at a Western European level and there is not the distressing poverty one witnesses in other regions of India. This situation is largely the credit of a powerful communist movement which has made up the largest political party here since India’s independence. However, at the same time, Kerala houses the most conservative institutes of Hindu society.
Kerala is of importance for the traditional Ayurvedic medicine. Nowhere in India has this science been preserved as authentically as here and nowhere do people stick to tradition so strongly. Despite the communist sympathies of the people, it is here that we encounter the ‘invisibles’, a casteless group ranking lower than the untouchables, whose aspect is so defiling that the members of this caste may appear on the street only at night.

India’s population is made up of different ethnic groups. In the Northwest, people generally have a lighter skin colour than in the South. In the Northeast, people have Mongol features. In 1961, India had a population of 440 million people, but is now estimated to have over a billion people, and the population growth poses an enormous problem for the government. India started with family planning as early as 1952, but it is doubtful if the programmes have had an effect. For the poor, children still are an investment in their future. Approximately 74% of the people live in the rural areas and the remainder in the cities. More and more people are drifting to the cities, hoping to find wealth and freedom (from the castes). The results are disastrous. Increasing numbers of slums are incorporated into the cities while the government lacks the means to improve the circumstances of the inhabitants. There are a great number of cities with over a million inhabitants, and the most populous are Mumbai and Collate (Calcutta). Despite the fact that there is a powerful feminist movement in India and that in the higher castes women have a reasonable position, women in India are seen, in general, as very inferior to men. Particularly in the rural communities, women are practically slaves with no say whatsoever. Couples hope for a child, but especially for a boy, as boys strengthen the family. His wife will come to live with him later and will bring in a dowry. To have a daughter means to have to pay a dowry and more often than not, financial worries.

The large majority of Indians (82%) are Hindu. The proportion of Muslims is 11.3%. There are also Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Jews, Parsis, Baha’is and Animists.

Hinduism
It would seem as if Hindus have not much in common with western religion. In a sense, that is true. There is no central hierarchy, no common confession of creed and no founding father in whom all Hindus believe. Hindus express their religious feelings in various ways. For this reason, a concept such as ‘ahimsa’, non-violence, and ideas about vegetarianism co-exist with rituals in which animals are slaughtered or self-punishment is practised. A belief in reincarnation co-exists with a belief in a heaven for ancestors, and highly formalized rituals occur as well as highly emotional ceremonies. To get a better understanding of Hinduism, you should ask individual Hindus about their ideas on the matter. You will find that almost all Indians have very distinct ideas about their own religious experiences and are usually eager to tell you about them. You will probably notice that there are many different personal views amongst them.
Hindus generally recognize the fact that life has four objectives. In the first place, the aim is to live up to one’s religious and social obligations vis-à-vis the family and society. These obligations are summarized in the concept of dharma. Secondly, it is important to gain sufficient material possessions, so that alms can be given to beggars and itinerant holy men and the family can be sustained. This is known as artha. The third aim in life is experiencing sexuality or kaama, which should result in male offspring. The son is necessary to perform ancestral rituals. The last and highest goal is liberalization from reincarnation, or moksha (a comparable and much more well-known concept in the West is the Buddhist Nirvana). Apart from living up to these obligations, the individual Hindu is free to think whatever he or she wants. He can choose his own spiritual master or guru. There is a lot of respect for gurus and elderly people. An equal amount of respect is also paid to the numerous living holy men. Many of these holy men wander through India and are called saddhus.
Most Hindus also believe in karma. This is the law that one deed prompts another, and everything you come across in life is actually a result of previous deeds. By doing good deeds you can build up credits from which you will reap the benefits, either in this life or in a following one. Hindus spend a lot of time worshipping gods that live in the temples. These can be enormous temples, or small home shrines in a corner of the room where the family god is worshipped. In the temple, their god lives like a king. Many Hindus believe that it is possible to actually meet their god in the temple.

The world of gods
A visit to a Hindu temple is an introduction to an extensive pantheon of gods. Most Hindus will tell you they believe in one god, even if it seems thousands exist. When you question them about this oddity, you will often be told that the manifest forms should be seen as the planes of a diamond. If a ray of light falls on the diamond, a different plane will light up every time, but it will still be the same diamond. In the following we will pay attention to a few important Hindu gods: Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu and Ganesha. We shall also touch upon some goddesses.
In the west, the Hindu trinity of Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva is often known. Brahma is hardly worshipped, however, as he is too abstract, does not take on a definite personality and has created hardly any exciting myths. In the whole of India, there is only one temple that is dedicated to Brahma, in Pushkar (Rajasthan). Brahma is the creator of the universe and he is portrayed having four heads. Sarasvati originally was described as Brahma’s daughter, but in later times was described as his wife. She is seen as the goddess of the arts and is mostly portrayed with a stringed instrument in her hands.

Shiva is one of the most important gods in Hinduism. He is often portrayed as an ascetic. He is dressed in a tiger skin or an elephant skin, as a reference to two demons he has once slain. His body is greyish or white, because he rubs himself with the ashes from incinerated bodies. He wears his hair in long braided strands, the style many ascetics in India have their hair. He has three eyes – the third embellishes his forehead. From this third eye he can evoke a destructive fire, to destruct the universe when creation nears its end. In his figure and the attributes he carries, Shiva unites many opposites. Hindus explain this is because he is a god encompassing the whole universe, from high to low, from clean to foul. Thus in his one ear he wears an earring customarily worn by village women from low castes, while in his other ear he has an earring with the shape of a mythical crocodile typically worn by Brahmins. In one of his hands he holds a drum, damaru, resembling an hourglass. With this drum he indicates the rhythm of creation. One of his other hands carries a blazing fire that he destroys the world with. On his head he wears flowers, including the highly toxic datura, a flower from which hallucinatory substances can be distilled. Around his neck he has venomous snakes, symbols of death. On his head he also has a moon’s crescent, another symbol of death. His mount is the bull Nandi. Nandi almost always lies in front of Shiva temples. Shiva has always been the god of ascetics. Many of his followers are saddhus (holy men), wandering through India alone or in groups, their bodies rubbed with ashes, doing penance in bizarre ways. They can be recognized by the three horizontal lines they paint on their foreheads. Their attribute is the trident. Shiva’s women are known by many names and figures. Parvati is Shiva’s most well known partner – she became the symbol of the submissive, subservient woman. She had to sit and watch how Shiva went off with beauties in and out of season, but he would always come back to her. Parvati is the peaceful form of the concept of shakti (female energy), although she can also manifest herself in different, more ferocious forms: Durga, Chamunda or Kali. Durga is often worshipped as an independent goddess who has nothing to do with Shiva. She was created especially to save the gods of a terrible disaster, with her own weapons. As Kali (‘the black’) Parvati occurs in her most terrible shape. She is black, her tongue protrudes from her bloody mouth, and she is hung with chopped human heads and skulls, wandering over horrible final resting places. She is supposed to offer help where no other god still has any power. Remarkably, even the lowest castes are allowed to worship her, which makes her following very large. Uniquely, she is presented with blood sacrifices; during her festivals, numerous black male animals are sacrificed, varying from cats to buffaloes.

Vishnu is a god appearing in numerous appearances. He usually has a character milder and friendlier than Shiva, although even he has ecstatic aspects. Vishnu is usually pictured with a blue body colour and four arms, in which he holds a shell, a club, a lotus flower and a discus. He often wears a crown and a yellow robe. Around his neck he has a wreath of forest flowers and various pieces of jewellery, including a jewel that fulfils wishes. Vishnu has two mounts, the snake Shesha and the bird Garuda. The snake serves him as a resting place, while the bird carries him through the universe. Vishnu guards the world and in case something threatens to go amiss, he will act. He will appear on the earth as an incarnation. The Hindus know ten classic incarnations: fish, tortoise, swine, the man-lion Narasimha, dwarf, Rama with the axe, Rama with an arch, Krishna, Buddha and finally, Kalki. The last incarnation of Vishnu, Kalki, still has to appear. He will appear as a horseman on a white horse with a sword that ‘flares as a comet’. With this sword he will destroy all demons that threaten the world. The most popular incarnations of Vishnu are Krishna and Rama with the arch, the hero of Ramayana. Krishna himself figures in many different stories and situations, and is especially popular in his appearance as a young cowherd. He has a number of affairs with the shepherdesses of the village where he lives. Later he becomes a great religious preacher and he lays down his message to humankind in the Bhagavad Gita, an important philosophical text that is a central text in the Mahabharata.

A particularly popular god is Ganesha. He can be instantly recognized between the hundreds of god figures of the Indian pantheon, as he has an elephant’s head. Tens of different appearances exist of him. He is considered to be the spiritual son of Shiva, who would not be the one who begot him, however. He was born from the bath oil of his mother Parvati as a handsome boy. He developed his elephant head later. When Shiva came home after a long absence, Parvati was just taking a bath. She had put her son Ganesha in front of the door, on guard. Ganesha had not seen Shiva and refused to let him in. Shiva flew into a rage and beheaded the guardsman. Only when he heard he had murdered his own son, he had to quickly find the head of any other being to replace it, and this happened to be an elephant. When the elephant’s head was hewn off and fell onto the ground, one of the tusks broke off. It was placed in the sky in the shape of a moon’s crescent. Ganesha is a god that takes away hindrances, when worshipped. If not worshipped, however, he can create hindrances. Ganesha does everything for the people that worship him and for that reason criminals and black magicians often worship him. Ganesha is worshipped in almost all Hindu temples. He resembles a rat.

Northern India, which includes Rajasthan, has a warm and dry climate with cold nights during the winter and extremely high temperatures in May and June (temperatures during the day can rise above 40 degrees). Besides the monsoon season (July-September) there is little rain. In Rajasthan, it can go years without raining.

South India encompasses a large area and hence has a variety of tropical climates. The most important monsoon is the wet south-west monsoon, which reaches the southernmost point of the subcontinent in the beginning of June, and the rest of South India a month later. The monsoon rains take the form of downpours in the afternoon and early evening. During and after the monsoon, the country is a lush green all over.

Best time to travel:
Spring (February and March) and Autumn (mid-September until mid-December) is a good time to visit Rajasthan. The desert nights in January can be extremely cold. February and March are very characteristic of spring months, while April onwards can see the temperatures rise to uncomfortable levels. In October and November, many festivals and celebrations take place. The summer months are hot and usually clammy. The nice thing about the summer months is that most people are awake in the evenings and nights, holding long siestas during the tropical daytime. If you can adjust to this body-clock, it becomes endurable.

The best time to travel to South India is from October to March. From April to June, the interior of Tamil Nadu gets very hot. Monsoon time is actually not a bad period to visit South India. The landscape is beautiful with a fresh green colour and an abundance of water. The rain showers last a few hours a day at most and bring a welcome coolness. The weather is spectacular with enormous clouds and thunder and lightning. Streets can change into swirling rivers within minutes. However, the monsoon can make travelling slow as roads become flooded.

The castes
Unlike in western societies, where the principle of equality of individuals is stressed, in India one man in principle is not equal to the other.
Society is divided up in a hierarchy from high to low and this hierarchy determines a large part of daily life. The various groups are usually called ‘castes’. The subdivision in main castes includes the four varnas. The first varna is the class of priests, the Brahmins. The second varna is made up of nobility and fighters, the ksatriyas. This caste makes up the brunt of the present army, politicians and the police. The third caste is made up of craftsmen and tradesmen, the vaisyas, while the fourth caste consists of the sudras. The fourth varna’s task is to serve the other three. It is mostly the great mass of farmers belonging to this class. Apart from these four groups there is also the group of avarnas, the so-called outcastes.

These ‘untouchables’ are considered to be highly unclean, the dregs of society. They have to do the foulest jobs, such as cleaning toilets and streets. All professions that have to do with blood (butchers, even midwives) and death (cremators, leather workers) may only be exercised by outcasts. The untouchables are a very important part of Indian society. In the course of history, forward-thinking philosophers have condemned the caste system time and time again and of course they found supporters among this very group. In our time, Mahatma Gandhi has been so valiant to fight for the abolition of the caste system and he called the untouchables ‘harijanes’, children of god. Officially, the castes have now been abolished under the constitution and discrimination as to caste is forbidden. However, in practice it turns out that a system which has ruled society for over 3000 years cannot be eradicated in one or two generations.

Caste rules are most specific in three areas. In the first place, they rule the choice of a marriage partner. Castes are endogamous, meaning caste members marry only within their own caste. Secondly, professions are made up of the same caste. Thirdly, in theory it is not allowed to eat with non-caste members. The subdivision in castes has everything to do with the beliefs about the cleanliness of a caste. Many Indians believe that uncleanliness can be passed on by eating together. It is permitted to eat food prepared by someone from a higher caste; however, eating food that was prepared by someone from a lower caste leads to uncleanliness. Hence, Brahmins are very sought-after cooks, as food prepared by them is acceptable for anyone. There is also food which is never unclean, whoever prepared it. This applies to nuts, betel leaves and fruit. These can be accepted from anyone. Indians recognize each other’s caste by physical features or by language.

On your first day in India, take it easy. Take time to adapt. The change of climate, culture and food can be quite challenging. Particularly in the larger cities, traders can be pretty obtrusive. Stay calm, but indicate clearly when you are not interested in buying. Let the country sink in. Enjoy yourself!

A visa is required for European passport holders to travel to India. Shoestring does not provide this service, so please contact the Indian embassy in your country about the details.

India has 220 volt, 50 Hertz current. However, power cuts occur regularly, so keep a penlight near in case electricity fails. An adaptor will be necessary for British plugs.

Southern Asia is a region where more diseases are rife then in Europe. The situation is comparable to that in our parts before the Second World War. All dangerous diseases that are common in India or Nepal (to a lesser degree in Sri Lanka and the Maldives) almost exclusively affect the poor. Besides, with a timely treatment they can almost always be checked, for those that can afford it. If you pay sufficient attention to hygiene, insect repellents and skin care in South Asia, you will most probably stay healthy, apart maybe from some harmless intestinal problems.

Food and hygiene: Intestinal problems are much more common in India and Nepal (and to a lesser degree in Sri Lanka and the Maldives) than in Western Europe, and food can be a major source of contamination. Visitors to this country are advised to eat meat and chicken only in reputed restaurants and otherwise stick to vegetarian food. Eat in good restaurants or, if you do go to cheap eating places, look for the busiest ones. Here, the turn-around of the food is highest and hence the freshest. Fried vegetarian snacks can hardly go wrong, although the quality of the frying oil can go down after frequent use, and sit heavy on the stomach. In expensive restaurants, you should be able to trust all the food, including meat, ice creams and salads, but in case of doubt, put it aside. It is best not to eat salads in simple establishments, and the same applies to fruit salads and fruit juices. If you peel the fruit yourself, it is safe. Wash your hands often and check if cutlery and plates are washed properly. Keep your fingernails short.

Sun and heat: Sunburn is a common phenomenon which can be prevented in a very simple way. In the bright tropical sun, people risk sunstroke or sunburn. To prevent this, try not to expose your body to direct sunshine, especially during the hottest hours of day. Wear a hat or cap or an umbrella and a pair of sunglasses when walking in the sun, and use a good sun tan lotion when sunbathing. Buy these articles prior to the journey.The key for good skin care is to treat each little wound with a disinfectant, however small.

Insects: Mosquitoes are most active just after sundown or just before sunrise. So take your measures right then, and during the entire night. Covering up the skin with clothing does help, just as an insect repellent like DDT. Besides, you can request mosquito coils from your hotel desk or the restaurant where you eat. These green spirals can be burnt underneath your table or chair, detaining the mosquitoes. Electric coils are better suited to closed-off spaces. You may also consider bringing a mosquito net.

Animals: Don’t stroke animals. Rabies and scabies occur widely in India. Should you be bitten, call on a doctor immediately. In case of a bite by a monkey or a dog, you should be flown home immediately; and seek medical care straight away. Rabies that has not been treated in an early stage will be deadly without exception. Bites by snakes and scorpions are rare and as a rule are not deadly. However, do not walk in high grass and other vegetation with open shoes. Keep your travel bags closed, in particular at night, and do not put on your shoes in the morning before you have checked if they are uninhabited.

Diarrhoea: The most common complaints are intestinal disorders, in particular diarrhoea. Diarrhoea is a natural defence mechanism of the intestines to quickly dispose of anything damaging or irritating in the digestive tract. In most cases it is a completely innocuous phenomenon caused by a sudden change in diet, the heat or harmless bacteria, against which your body will quickly gain resistance (traveller’s diarrhoea). The main risk is dehydration. Dehydration occurs when the body continues to emit moisture and salts, while the intestines no longer absorb those from their contents. The symptoms are a feeling of listlessness, a dry mouth and lips and a low urine production. Test for advanced dehydration by taking some skin on the top of your hand between your thumb and index finger, and release it. If the skin does not smooth itself straight away, you are dehydrated. In elderly people, this test does not work well. Serious dehydration often leads to a confused state of mind. Drinking lots of water, soft drinks and soup can prevent dehydration. In case of dehydration, it is best to drink water mixed with an ORS solution. This powder, which is available from chemists’ in sachets both in India and at home, contains all minerals which the body loses as a result of diarrhoea. Sugar has been added to improve the uptake of salts and water. The amount to be taken is shown on the sachet. If the diarrhoea comes with a high fever, vomiting, blood in the faeces or vehement retching, call on a doctor immediately. It is probable that you have dysentery, which is caused by bacteria that may require a medicine to fight it. There are excellent medicines to stop diarrhoea, but they do not remove the cause. Medicines containing loperamide, such as the branded medicines Diacura and Immodium, call a complete halt to the bowel activity. It makes sense when you have to travel. However, never take them when the diarrhoea comes with one of the symptoms mentioned and can have the form of dysentery.

Prickly heat: Prickly heat is an inflammation of the pores which comes about as a consequence of excessive sweating. It is common and innocuous, but unpleasant. The skin becomes red and irritated. Places where skin touches skin are extra susceptible, such as armpits and thighs. The symptoms will become less if you shower several times a day (cold, no soap), and dry off well. Applying talcum powder at the sore points may help, too. In moist heat, sleep in a cotton shirt, rather than under a sheet. If you suffer badly, it is best to take a room with air-conditioning for a few nights.

Doctors, dispensaries and medicines: Doctors and dispensary staff are generally well-educated and trustworthy. The medical infrastructure and clinics are of rather poor quality. All medicines can be purchased over the counter, without prescription. When buying medicine, note the date of packaging. A small travel first-aid kit could contain the following items: plasters, bandages, cotton wool, a small pair of scissors, a thermometer, iodine, pain-killers, malaria tablets, ORS sachets, Immodium or Diacure, insect repellent such as DDT and itch-alleviating ointment or stick. In case of an injury, you need an elastic bandage and tiger balm.

Vaccinations: For India, Sri Lanka and Nepal there are no obligatory vaccinations, except if you have visited a region with yellow fever or cholera less than a fortnight before you arrive. To be sure of the best protection, always contact your GP at least four weeks before you travel, to find out what measures to take. Usually, vaccinations again DTP are administered, as well as hepatitis-A, typhoid and malaria pills. The latter are to be taken during the trip until four weeks after your return. Some people get bitten dramatically less by mosquitoes if they start taking vitamin B complex pills two weeks before their journey, but unfortunately this trick does not work for everybody. In Nepal, malaria occurs only in the low-lying Terai, so near Chitwan National Park.

Some more bits of advice for a pleasant stay
Take time to allow your body and mind to adjust to the new time zone and location. Avoid stress; do not draw up a busy schedule. In any case, take it easy the first day. It is a good idea to get up early; in hot countries the morning temperature is often the most pleasant. Besides, the people in the country you are visiting are also used to getting up early. If you adjust to the local rhythm, you will take in most. If you are well rested, you can handle all new impressions best and you will have enough energy to do a lot.

Ensure that those at home know in which country you travelling and how long you are planning to stay away. You may fix a date when you will contact them again. Making telephone calls from India is generally not a problem. Provide the ones that will pick you up from the airport with your flight times and numbers. Shoestring will not provide flight and/or travel information, hotel names and telephone numbers to third parties. Any information on delays may be retrieved via the airport information number or Teletext.

Contact person
In case of an emergency it is important for us to have details of someone we can contact on your behalf. You have entered a name on the booking form. It is possible that this person is unavailable or on holiday during your trip. If so, enter a second person so that we are sure to be able to get in touch with somebody.

Appropriate clothing is valued very highly in India; long trousers and a shirt for men, covered shoulders and a skirt that at the very least covers the knees for women. Clothes are extremely cheap in India, so bringing too little is preferable to bringing too much. Throughout the months of October, November, March, April and May you will need summer clothing for the day and warm clothes for the evening and night. The winter months in Rajasthan tend to bring cold evenings, nights and mornings, and frost is not uncommon. If it is misty, an incessant cold snap can persist for most of the day. A warm coat and a jumper are invaluable in this situation. Also bring a good pair of shoes and a pair of slippers or sandals. A thin turtle-necked sweater with long sleeves is useful at sunset to provide protection against insect bites. A rough checklist for packing could consist of hat, sunglasses, sun cream, a sleeping bag, toiletries, a first-aid kit, any prescription medicine, a (video) camera with enough film, spare batteries, a torch, a pen-knife (make sure it is not in your hand luggage during the flight), a lighter, an alarm clock, writing equipment, books, your passport and visa, copies of your passport and visa, sufficient money and/or travellers’ cheques, all necessary travel insurance documents and details, a diary with important contact numbers/addresses and the booking papers for this trip. You may also wish to bring binoculars, an umbrella (useful as protection from both rainy and sunny weather), maps, travel games and snacks. A mosquito net is not absolutely necessary as these can be bought all over India. It is best that you carry your luggage in a smallish bag or backpack as opposed to a hard suitcase, as these are difficult to transport. In addition to this, a shoulder bag or another small backpack is useful for daily hand luggage. A thin money belt worn under your clothing is recommended for storage of valuables and important documents. Don’t bring too much luggage. In our experience, more than 12 kilos is unnecessary and hindersome.

The pocket money we recommend is a minimum to pay for your meals, drinks, optional excursions, entry fees, local airport taxes and tips. Clearly, the amount that you spend depends on your personal purchasing behaviour, and for this reason expenditure on souvenirs is not included in the recommended pocket money. We suggest an amount of € 150-175 per week.

It is better to have the prints made at home. Not all types of camera batteries are easy to find, so make sure you bring batteries that will last the entire trip. What applies to regular photography, applies for underwater photography as well. You will have to bring all the gear required from home, and have the pictures developed at home.

In many ways, India is a safe country. Mugging and other forms of physical violence against tourists occur only sporadically. Theft from tourists is also less frequent than in Britain, despite the wide difference in wealth between westerners and Indians. Still, in the eyes of the local population each ‘white nose’ is a millionaire and those who come in touch with you will make numerous efforts to share in your infinite wealth in some way. In almost all cases this way is begging or ripping you off. This relative security does not mean, however, that you can afford to be careless with money, valuables and luggage. Cash and travel documents are best worn on your skin, underneath your clothing. Do not leave anything valuable in your hotel room, it is better not to invite theft. In each hotel, you can leave valuables at reception, in exchange for a token.

In India it is four and a half hours later than in western Europa (five and a half hours later than in Britain). In the summertime, the difference is one hour less.

Staffs in hotels expect a tip for bringing the luggage in and for rendering small services. The wages in Indian hotels and restaurants are extremely low, with the exception of expensive hotels, and tips are a necessary addition to the wage. If you stay a few days in one place, it can be a good idea to start to give a tip at the first service rendered. It can make the level of service provision much higher. A tip of between 5 and 10 rupees is sufficient. In the more expensive restaurants, a service charge applies. In cheap establishments tips are an unknown phenomenon. Taxi and motorised rickshaws drivers do not expect to get a tip. Neither do bicycle rickshaws, but the poor drivers can be made very happy with a few rupees extra. The Shoestring bus driver and his assistant also expect a tip for the time they work for our group. A measure for the amount to give to the bus driver and the assistant together is 50 cents per day per participant. If you are happy with their job, that is. For the local travel guide, € 1 per day per participant is a fair sum. Naturally they would appreciate the tip to be paid in local currency.